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Exploring the relation between women's empowerment and reproductive independence of Syrian refugees in Turkey
The empowerment of women is a crucial issue for the world and has been one of the major focuses within the development debates for a long time. There are various theoretical approaches and methods to assess women's empowerment and mostly its relation to other dynamics. The main focus of this study, reproductive independence, is linked to many demographic events. Women's empowerment and reproductive independence are both substantial issues considering that they both enable women the tempo and the quantum of their fertility including childlessness by choice. However, there are rather few studies on the empowerment of refugees and their reproductive independence in this context. This study explores the relation between women's empowerment and the reproductive independence of Syrian refugee women in Turkey. 2018 TDHS Syrian migrant sample data is used as the data source. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) is conducted to construct a women's empowerment index with three dimensions using 10 items. Reproductive independence is conceptualized with three components: sexual relations, healthcare decisions and the need for family planning. Descriptive tables are used as well as binary and multinomial logistic regression models to understand the extent of variance explained by women's empowerment on reproductive independence. Results show that women's empowerment is significant on sexual relations, healthcare decisions and the overall reproductive independence. In further analysis, two out of three dimensions of women's empowerment were significant in logistic regression models in explaining the overall reproductive independence.
Adolescent fertility among Syrian refugee women in Turkey: A comparative study
The aim of this thesis is to examine the determinants of adolescent fertility of ever- married Syrian migrant women living in Turkey in comparison with their counterparts in the host community. Data used in the thesis was obtained from the 2018 Turkey Demographic Health Survey (2018 TDHS) which included both national and Syrian migrant samples. Descriptive and multivariate analyses for both of the samples, namely logistic regression, were applied to explore the determinants of adolescent fertility composed of four groups of variables: socio-economic, regional, marriage- and fertility- related characteristics. To reveal the variation of determinants between generations, analyses were carried out separately for the age groups of 20-49 and 20-24. The analysis results show that, women in the 20-24 age groups are more prone to teenage fertility than other age groups in Turkey and Syrian migrants. Also, 20-year-olds were more prone to adolescent fertility among the 20-24 age group of Syrian immigrants. For both groups, educational levels of women and their spouses have the greatest impact on women's early motherhood compared to other variables, and this result is in line with the results of the previous relevant studies in the literature. In addition, the rural place of residence during childhood of woman is among the important factors that accelerate adolescent fertility among the Syrian group of ages 20-24. For both Syrian migrant women and women in Turkey, it was revealed that women who did not work before marriage, had a large age difference with their spouses, and who had their first menstrual period at an early age were more likely to give birth in their adolescence period. While the presence of a consanguineous relationship with the spouse was a significant predictor of adolescent fertility in both groups of women aged 20-49, no significant association was observed for the new generation (20-24 age group). Also, based on the evidence of this thesis, it is critical to put in place sound and sustainable policies in order to lower high adolescent fertility rate of Syrian immigrant women in Turkey. Key words: fertility, adolescent, Syrian , Turkey, refugee
Fertility heterogeneity in Turkey: Fertility trajectory clusters through birth cohorts
The decline in fertility, rapid urbanization and the increase in women's education levels in Turkey are simultaneous transformations. The coexistence and mutual interaction of these transformations is the focal point for the interpretation of fertility trajectories in Turkey. This thesis explores Turkey's heterogeneous fertility structure by examining the fertility trajectories of women between 1944 and 1978 cohorts. Using six waves (1993, 1998, 2003, 2008, 2013, 2018) of the Turkey Demographic and Health Survey data, sequence analysis was employed to calculate fertility trajectories and form clusters from these trajectories. The background similarities of women in the same fertility trajectory cluster were investigated with distance analysis, calculated predicted probabilities of cluster membership from multinomial logistic regression results. Results show that the total time spent with 5 or more children decreased significantly, the time spent childless in the reproductive zone has been extended and spacing has increased, particularly between second and third births. Over time, types of fertility trajectory clusters remained similar (and named with respect to their tempo and quantum of fertility as; "one child-norm", "two children-norm", "three children-norm", "four children-norm" and "five or more children-norm"). The emergence of the same heterogeneous fertility trajectories for each cohort confirmed that fertility is heterogeneous in Turkey. The heterogeneous structure of one child-norm cluster in the younger cohorts indicates an absence of a transition to childlessness from this cluster. The two children-norm dominates the fertility behavior. For three children-norm cluster, the fact that a subgroup that spent a longer time with two children in the most recent period can be an indication of the evolution of this fertility behavior into two children-norm. Women in one child-norm and two children-norm clusters were found to be highly similar to each other compared to their cohort. Greater spacing between births or even stopping after the first child became a preferred option among educated women who grew up in cities. For women who grew up in rural areas and uneducated women, the transition to lower fertility behaviors continues.
Internal migration and initial family type in Turkey
In this thesis, the relationship between the initial family type and internal migration behavior of ever-married women who are in their reproductive age is investigated based on the 2013 Turkey Demographic and Health Survey data. This relationship has been analyzed by using the logistic regression analysis method—the intergenerational co-residence from the perspective of the younger generation used as the theoretical approach. In theory, it is assumed that intergenerational co-residence is common among agricultural societies, and with the introduction of industrialization and subsequently, through urbanization and migration, this pattern eventually decreases (Ruggles and Heggeness, 2008). The evaluation of the effect of migration on initial family types is based on this theory. The migration pattern in this study is categorized as urban to urban, urban to rural, rural to urban, rural to rural. The reason for migration is constructed in four categories, marriage, personal, family-related, and other. Likewise, the initial family type is the dependent variable and classified into two groups; namely, nuclear and extended family type. Moreover, the analysis conducted within the framework of the main sociodemographic characteristics of the respondents revealed the relational dimension of the subject being studied. This analysis was made by taking into account some characteristics of women in the period until their first marriage. Namely, educational status, participation in the labor force and social security status, as well as the age of first marriage, ethnicity and finally marital characteristics (marriage arrangement, consanguinity between spouses and brides money). The results showed that internal migration was an important factor for women establishing a new family. In particular, the migration pattern and reason for the last migration before first marriage affect the couple's family formation type in the first marriage.
Effect of survivor's pension on female employment
In this thesis, I analyzed risk of being out of employment and risk of employment without social security for women who take survivor's pension from social security coverage in Turkey. The hypothesis of this thesis is that survivor's pension constitutes a barrier to participate in labor or in formal employment for women. The primary data source for emprical analyses is "Income and Living Conditions Survey, 2017" micro data set. Analyses of this thesis include 26,266 economically active working age women and among them 8,376 single women who could legally receive a survivor's pension. Following the descriptive analysis, multivariate models were established to the test of the hypothesis. Logistic regression analysis was carried out for the models to determine the variables that affect women's employment. The first model presents the determinants of participation of women in employment. Then the second model shows the determinants of working with or without social security. The dependent variable of the first model is working or non-working, while the dependent variable of the second model is working with social security or working without social security. Independent variables of the both models are determined into three groups; having or not having a survivor's pension, sociodemographic determanants and income related determinants. Socio-demographic determinants are age, education status, number of children under 5 and region, while income related determinants are household ownership and household income. Result of the logistic regression analysis shows that survivor's pension as well as the other income related and the socio-demographic determinants other than number of children under 5 are significant for the risk of not working and working without social security. This thesis shows that women who receive survivor's pension are 0.442 times less likely to work than those who do not receive survivor's pensions and also women who receive a survivor's pension are 0.148 times less likely to work with social security than those who do not receive this pension. Key words: Survivor's benefits, women, employment, social security
The union formation and dissolution among Turkish immigrants and their descendants in Germany
This thesis aims to find the extent to which first-generation Turkish immigrants and their descendants converge to or diverge from the partnership practices that are commonly accepted among natives in Germany. The Second Demographic Transition (SDT) guides the analysis to compare Turkish immigrants and natives, while immigrants' position will be evaluated by giving reference to integration hypotheses. This study uses the Panel Analysis of Intimate Relationships and Family Dynamics (pairfam) survey with a reference period of 2008-2018. It employs event-history models (the Cox proportional hazard model and Kaplan-Meier survival estimates) to analyze transitions from (1) celibacy to the first partnership, (2) celibacy to the first marriage, (3) celibacy to first cohabitation, (4) cohabitation to marriage, and (5) marriage to divorce. The results show that partnership practices linked to the SDT are not prevalent among Turkish immigrants. First and second-generation tends to marry directly and divorce less than their native counterparts. While consensual unions stay uncommon, cohabitation outcomes show that preferences regarding this partnership are not the same for descendants and their parents. While the latter keep cohabitation as short as possible and proceed to marriage, second-generation extend the duration and alternatively separate from the cohabiting partner. Unlike the first generation, second-generation significantly postpone the timing of their first marriage. Therefore, strong socialization to norms and values transformed by parents and weak adaptation to the native pattern for secondgeneration Turkish immigrants are found in the analysis of all four transitions except transition to first union formation.
Interrelationships between sociodemographic characteristics, poverty and out of pocket health expenditures in Turkey
Health expenditures have had a rapidly increasing trend around the world due to technological advancements in the health sector, population growth, changes in sociodemographic characteristics, higher quality and more accessible health care service expectations etc. Managing the increasing health expenditures by means of health financing methods has been an essential part of health policies in the last two centuries. Out-of-pocket (OOP) health expenditure has been among one of the most common health financing methods across the world. Even though, its scope within the health financing systems varies according to economic, social and developmental outlook of countries, OOP health expenditures have a wide variety of social and economic consequences. Catastrophic health expenditures and impoverishment are the most important ones. This study is looking for answers for the research questions stated as i) "How sociodemographic characteristics of individuals and households affect OOP health expenditures and catastrophic health expenditures in Turkey?" and ii) "Do OOP health expenditures cause impoverishment of individuals and households in Turkey?" Within the context of statistical analyses and calculations, Household Budget Surveys data is used conducted by Turkish Statistical Institute between 2004 and 2017 to observe a long period including the health transformation process of Turkey. The method of World Health Organization is applied for determining households that experienced catastrophic health expenditures for predetermined four thresholds and impoverishment. According to the results of the logistic regression analysis of OOP health expenditures, almost all independent variables included in the model have a statistically significant effect on households' OOP health expenditures. Although from 2004 to 2012 a notable decline trend was observed in catastrophic health expenditures, as of 2012, the rate has ever-growing trend in every threshold. When impoverished households due to OOP health expenditures are examined, it is seen that health insurance status, education, household type, having pre-school age or elderly or disabled member are prominent features. In conclusion, households with low social and economic opportunities cannot benefit from health care services adequately or become poor when they access to them. Key words: OOP health expenditure, catastrophic health expenditure, impoverishment, health insurance, health care service
Gender difference in internal educational migration: Distance analysis between hometown and university for students applied for residing in the dormitories of general directorate of credit and hostels
There are few studies on migration for educational purposes, both in Turkey and around the world. However, as a result of globalization and shortening of distances, the movement of migration for educational purposes increased and continues increasing. This situation reveals the necessity of working on this subject. In this thesis, we analyzed the information about the profile of students who change their place of residence for university education. First, as a background, an information about the development of universities in Turkey has been given, and accommodation problems arising from this development have been mentioned. Also information about General Directorate of Credit and Hostels (KYK), the largest public institution that provides housing opportunities for university students in Turkey, has been given. As the major concept of this thesis, the aspect of gender and distance of educational migration has been examined based on the information of students who applied to be accommodated in KYK hostels in 2017-2018 academic year. In addition to multiple linear regression analysis, the relationship between gender and distance has been examined with descriptive statistics. Besides demographic, social and economic characteristics of students, their scores in university entrance exam have also been examined according to the gender and the distance. The average distance between the hometown and the university of students have been calculated as 443,89 km for female students and 512,81 km for male students. According to the analysis conducted by the ordinary least squares method(OLS), male students study in universities which are located at longer distances from their hometown than female students. Moreover, when descriptive statistics are considered, in all social-demographic groups male students move longer distance than females.
Causes of death in Turkey in terms of health institutions: Epidemiologic examination
Causes of deaths (CoD) in Turkey has a long historical period in the compilation of death processes, beginning from 1931 until today. Despite various efforts in the process, a comprehensive and qualitative system could be established after 2009, by the Ministry of Health (MoH) and the Turkish Statistical Institute (TurkStat). The system has been evolved to an electronic and dynamic system in 2013, by the integration of the Central Civil Registration System (MERNİS) to the process, which is called Death Notification System (DNS). In this study, the historical background of the causes of deaths in Turkey until 2009 has been reviewed accompanying the epidemiologic and demographic transition history in the world and in Turkey. Furthermore, the new system on causes of deaths after 2009 has been examined by the health institutions which are responsible for issuing death certificates. To do this, basic characteristics such as sex, age, usual residence and cause of death of the deceased person were analysed by institutions which notify the death event. Also, the causes of death considered from the epidemiologic viewpoint were discriminated such infectious and non-infectious diseases, in the analysis. With the impact of developing health systems and the improvement of the average life expectancy in the world, we are faced with the decreasing effect of infectious diseases and the fact of aging. In a similar pattern, the diseases causing deaths in Turkey have been changed towards the non-communicable forms by the 2000s. But when the recent era of the epidemiological transition of Turkey was examined, a newly emerging effect of communicable diseases was determined. Particularly, private hospitals and university hospitals are in the foreground, notifying infectious diseases compared to the others. The effect of infectious diseases, especially on children and women, is more apparent. In addition, due to the recent migration movements in our region, it is considered that the infectious diseases constitute a greater risk particularly in the eastern regions near the border.
Sequential mixed-mode surveys: An application on education faculties in Turkey
The main purpose of using different data collection methods is to collect the best quality data by taking the budgetary constraints into consideration. In the literature, although there are a lot of studies for comparing web and e-mail data collection methods, there is no study in which telephone, e-mail and web data collection methods are applied with sequential mixed mode design and the results are compared. The main purpose of this study is to examine the effects of different methods of data collection, such as telephone, web and e-mail on the quality of collected data. The reason why the research is carried out on the education faculties is that the teacher education system is of great importance for the world and our country. Three different questionnaires which are prepared for three different data collection methods, were sent to 96 deans who work in education faculties in Turkey. e-mail mode at the first step; web mode in the second stage, and third step telephone interview mode was applied and 17, 12 and 5 deans answered respectively. The highest response rate was obtained from the e-mail method. When the answers to the questionnaires were examined, it was observed that no particular problems about item-nonresponse or open-ended questions existed. It was observed that in the telephone interview, interviewers offered more additional information during the interview. However, numerical questions in the telephone interview could not be given as clear numbers. On the other hand, the importance of the location of the interviewer at the time of the interview was understood. From the answers to the questionnaire, it was understood that the problem area which should be solved most urgently about the teacher education system was the enter the education faculties and the training process in the faculties of education. According to the respondents, Turkey's historically most important problem areas for teacher education system was these areas. As a result, when the target population has a small size, what it is possible to have access to contact information, and where the education level of respondents is high, it is considered that choosing the web mode will have a higher response rate. But it should not be forgotten that more information will be abandoned.
From refuge to war zone: Policy failure in the involuntary return of Somali refugees to war-torn Somalia by the government of Kenya
In the world's real state of nature, people are forcefully evicted from their homes every other time either because they are targets of their state's persecutions or their state's failure to protect them from violent conflicts and wars that make people's homes inhabitable. They flee to other states in search of safety and because States, the world over, have collectively claimed the territories in form of physical boundaries, autonomy and sovereignty, these subjects of eviction transform to being refugees. Pushed from their homes, coupled with the fact that States continue to erect high border fences and walls and legislate restrictive migration policies aimed to wade off refugee claims, as they portray refugees as a burden and a problem to be addressed, their protection has been of primary concern to the international community. National asylum systems, however, have been inadequate and their procedures ineffective in addressing the plight of refugees. Structured around the following general research question: What are the policy failures in the motivations, interests and strategies by the Kenya Government, Federal Republic of Somalia, UNHCR and other stakeholders in pushing for repatriation of Somali Refugees spontaneously and prematurely?, the study answers the question by tracing the Kenyan asylum procedures over time with respect to the principles of non-refoulement and the right to asylum. Following a theoretical evaluation of these two key principles, both at the international and domestically in Kenya, and in the framework of the 1951 Refugee Convention, this study endeavored to show that the Kenyan asylum laws are not independent from the international asylum legal framework, and that Kenya must honour its international obligation to protect refugees. Taking account of Kenya's international obligation, the Federal Republic of Somalia's duty to create conditions of just return for its citizens and UNHCR's mandate to protect refugees, the study continues its analysis by qualitatively investigating the role and motivation of those three parties in promoting return of refugees at a time when Somalia is still not safe and the Federal Government of Somalia has admitted to not being able to accommodate large-scale returns of its nationals. The study concludes that the Government of Kenya's security and sovereignty concerns, the Somali Government's push for legitimacy after decades of war, and UNHCR's battle with host State's pressure to return refugees informed the decision to prematurely evict refugees from Kenya. Moreover, the study reveals the inadequacy of the Kenya's asylum space and advocates for hastening of the repeal of the Refugee Act 2006 by parliament so that refugees can adequately access protection. But before that happens, refugees in Kenya continue to suffer from inadequate protection challenges, and the international community and donor States are strongly encouraged to readapt their practices and align them to the refugee challenges of the 21st century. Top of the chart is the need to support Somalia's demographic security challenge whose picture portrays an outright outlier in the demographic sense, besides fixing the physical security situation in Somalia.
The prevalence of obesity and its determinants among 7 years old children in Turkey
Childhood obesity is one of the most serious public health challenges of the 21st century. In Turkey, obesity is one of the adulthood and childhood public health concerns just like in the world. Obesity is one of the important causes of Non- Communicable Diseases and related mortality. This study focuses on obesity including overweight prevalence among 7 years of children in the 2nd class and its linkages with socio-economic determinants with the perspective of determinants of health in Turkey in order to provide insights for governmental actions. The data of the study are from the Turkey Childhood Obesity Surveillance (COSI TUR) that was conducted by the Ministry of Health in 2016. The survey was conducted in all provinces with a representative sample that was selected by TURKSTAT. The dependent variable of the study is the obesity status of the children. The main independent variable is the SES index. The other covariates are as follows: gender, eating habits, physical activity status (transport to school, attending sports activities etc.), family income, parent's BMI, parent's education, parent's employment status). The study includes both descriptive analyses and a series of multivariate analyses with logistic regression in SPSS 23.0. In our model reinforces the importance of SES and its factors for childhood obesity. Higher SES was significantly related to a higher risk of obesity among children in all models. Sex is a consistent predictor of obesity across all the models. Among the male children, using a vehicle for transportation, whose mother and/or father is obese, whose birth-weight is over 3500 gr are under the risk of obesity. Making physical activity is an important factor to prevent childhood obesity. For children who make not at all or less than 1 h/day physical activity, the risk of obesity increase approximately 2 times. Children who eat pizza and others frequently per week were 1.3 times more likely to be obese than children who eat seldom per week. Interestingly, there was no relation between child obesity and frequency of consumption sugar, sugar drink, and pastry. Tackling obesity should start at the childhood and strategies should include all sector and stakeholder.
The prevalence of obesity and its determinants among 7 years old children in Turkey
Childhood obesity is one of the most serious public health challenges of the 21st century. In Turkey, obesity is one of the adulthood and childhood public health concerns just like in the world. Obesity is one of the important causes of Non- Communicable Diseases and related mortality. This study focuses on obesity including overweight prevalence among 7 years of children in the 2nd class and its linkages with socio-economic determinants with the perspective of determinants of health in Turkey in order to provide insights for governmental actions. The data of the study are from the Turkey Childhood Obesity Surveillance (COSI TUR) that was conducted by the Ministry of Health in 2016. The survey was conducted in all provinces with a representative sample that was selected by TURKSTAT. The dependent variable of the study is the obesity status of the children. The main independent variable is the SES index. The other covariates are as follows: gender, eating habits, physical activity status (transport to school, attending sports activities etc.), family income, parent's BMI, parent's education, parent's employment status). The study includes both descriptive analyses and a series of multivariate analyses with logistic regression in SPSS 23.0. In our model reinforces the importance of SES and its factors for childhood obesity. Higher SES was significantly related to a higher risk of obesity among children in all models. Sex is a consistent predictor of obesity across all the models. Among the male children, using a vehicle for transportation, whose mother and/or father is obese, whose birth-weight is over 3500 gr are under the risk of obesity. Making physical activity is an important factor to prevent childhood obesity. For children who make not at all or less than 1 h/day physical activity, the risk of obesity increase approximately 2 times. Children who eat pizza and others frequently per week were 1.3 times more likely to be obese than children who eat seldom per week. Interestingly, there was no relation between child obesity and frequency of consumption sugar, sugar drink, and pastry. Tackling obesity should start at the childhood and strategies should include all sector and stakeholder.
Women's empowerment and infant mortality in Rwanda: The period of 2005-2015 health sector policies
The women's empowerment is an important social determinant for describing women's abilities and capacities in society. Over past decades the various research has focused on the relationship between infant mortality and health aspects while neglecting the possible social aspects and related effects on infant mortality. This study aims to fill the gap in research on the impacts of women's empowerment and health policy on infant mortality in Rwanda, as well as to discover the relationship between two components, and various variables include bio-demographic, socio-economic, environmental, media exposure, health care, and nutrient deficiency variables that accompany infant mortality, health policy, and women's empowerment. The data source used in this study come from three main standards Rwanda Demographic and Health Surveys (RDHS 2005/2010 and 2015).Principle Component Analysis was used to create women's empowerment index. In the study, binary logistic regression analysis was used as the analysis method. In the first two models, the independent effects of women empowerment and health policy period variables were examined, and in the third model, the effects of these two main explanatory variables were examined under the control of all variables related to bio-demographic, socio-economic, environmental, media use, health care, and nutritional deficiency. The findings of the study discovered the impacts of women's empowerment and health policy on infant mortality. It was found that women's empowerment reduced infant mortality by 1.47 times, and the health policy that started to be implemented in 2005 was 2.34 times. The study includes important findings on the effects of bio-demographic, socio-economic, environmental, media use, healthcare, and nutritional variables on infant mortality in Rwanda.
Comparative analysis of noncommunicable diseases and their risk factors among Syrian refugees in Turkey and Turkish population
Turkey is the host to the highest number of refugees hosted by a country. This huge number of refugee population, fleeing from ongoing conflict in their country of origin to Turkey, brought together the concern for humanitarian emergency crisis requiring action on provision of basic and most urgent health needs which put burden on health systems. Noncommunicable diseases are an integral part of the health service provision and must be inserted into the service delivery package for refugees. This study aims to shed light on Noncommunicable diseases risk factor status of Syrian refuges registered in Turkey by extending the analysis to Turkish host community to see the differences and similarities between the two groups. Multivariate analysis was used to evaluate the change in risk factors by gender, age range, marital status, employment and the level of education. Binary logistic regression was also used to see the effect of demographic characteristics on the risk for Noncommunicable diseases. The study suggests that even though there are differences in the overall distribution of risk factors, both groups are under major risk of developing Noncommunicable diseases. Insufficient intake of fruit and vegetable appeared to be the most concerning risk factor for Syrians, whereas the level of physical inactivity among Turkish host community is alarming. Even though, the Government of Turkey has implemented very broad policies for universal health coverage considering health equality and equity, these policies must be strengthened in the light of cultural sensitivities and needs. Strengthened enforcement of tobacco control policies, stronger public awareness campaigns for physical activity and healthy eating behaviour, regular monitoring of blood pressure, and more clear definition on the role of primary, secondary and tertiary care in tackling Noncommunicable diseases can be listed as the recommended intervention areas based on the findings of this study. Key words: Noncommunicable diseases, risk factor, refugees, Syrians
Essays on education inequality of women in Turkey
Despite advances in women's educational attainment in Turkey over the past 50 years, improvements in persistent inequality cohorts, lower intergenerational mobility and unequal opportunities in transition have remained important. This dissertation consists of three essays examining inequalities at the interface between demographic change and the educational level of women. Each essay has its own introduction, methods, results and conclusions. The essays have one thing in common that they are based on data from the TDHS 2013 and differ in their approach to the demographic perspective. In the first essay I examined the development of educational inequality in the women's cohorts in Turkey. Using non-parametric and parametric methods, I have found that the relationship between early life circumstances and women's education levels has not weakened over time. In addition to the inequality of opportunity, changes in the socio-economic composition of the population across the cohorts are also driving the result. In the second essay, I examined the divergent paths of young women in transition to adulthood in relation to education and employment. Despite the decreasing gender gap in schooling at all levels, labor force participation is still low, which increases the NEET rate. The results show that inactivity status is not only related to early life circumstances, but also to preferences and efforts. In the third essay, I examined intergenerational educational mobility between mothers and daughters using conventional and demographic methods. Mobility has not improved in the older cohorts. Affected by the most recent educational reforms, the younger daughters show greater mobility, the extent of which has been dampened by assortative mating and increased by differences in fertility.
The increase in the prevalence of one-person households in Turkey: By circumstances or by choices
The world has witnessed various social, economic, and cultural changes until today. New norms and lifestyles have been replaced with traditional ones over time. The transition from the periods when the family institution was essential to the times when people tend to live more individually has been visible since the last century, especially in the second demographic transition period. With the demographic effects of the changes, fertility began to decline, and the tendency to cohabitation and separation gained momentum. In Turkey, while the share of extended and multi-child nuclear families has diminished, one-parent and single-person households have increased from the middle of the 20th century. The main focuses of the study are to reveal the characteristics of one-person households and to find out the differences between people living alone due to choices and circumstances. In this respect, modernization and developmental idealism approaches were employed to rationalize the change in family structure and prevalence of one-person households. Besides, descriptive and multivariate analyzes were applied to attain the determinant factors. After a set of analyzes, essential findings were obtained regarding the distribution of one-person households in Turkey. While the tendency to live alone has a crucial representation among women, especially among elderly widowed women, the proportion of men living alone has also increased over time. Furthermore, young, never-married, and divorced persons in one-person households have become more common over the last two decades. Finally, the literature about one-person households and the outputs of analyses figure out that solo living becomes more common in Turkey through social, economic, cultural, and demographic transition stages. Following the theoretical approaches, the tendency of the younger, well-educated, never-married people to live alone becomes visible. Thus, it can be argued that the rationale behind living alone is parallel to Turkey's modernization path and examined detailly in this study.
Essays on the components of demographic change in Turkey: An application of decomposition methods
This dissertation aims to examine the components of demographic change in Turkey using decomposition methods. Trends in mortality, fertility, and population growth are separated into their components for exploring the effect of age and socioeconomic factors to the demographic change over time. This study consists of two main chapters in essay type on the decomposition of mortality measures and decomposition of fertility and population growth measures. In the first essay, long-term mortality trends are decomposed using direct and indirect mortality estimates based on demographic surveys and censuses. In addition, data sets of Turkish Demographic and Health Surveys conducted in 1993 and 2013 are used to examine the impact of social factors on mortality changes after 1990. The analysis has shown that the long-term mortality improvement was due to reductions in mortality rather than age structure. The greatest contribution to this decrease was the improvement in infant mortality rates. After 1990s, mortality levels have converged in all sub-population groups, although there was a significant disparity in age patterns of mortality. Fertility and population growth measures are analyzed in the second essay. Fertility decompositions are conducted by using data sets of Turkish Demographic and Health Surveys conducted in 1993, 2003 and 2013; while indirect estimates from secondary data sources are used to decompose crude rate of natural increase. Decomposition analysis has shown that the effect of increasing age at marriage and fertility postponement was evident in the study period. In addition, fertility variation between population groups persisted, and educational level was the most significant socioeconomic factor contributing to fertility change. Although Turkey's demographic transition is nearly completed, divergences in demographic conditions persist across sub-population groups. Some of the socioeconomic factors contributing to this divergence are discussed in this study. However, it should be taken into account that cultural and ideational factors also contribute to demographic divergence. Considering the results of this study in terms of the course of demographic change in Turkey, it can be predicted that, the completion of demographic transition in all population groups is anticipated to produce further declines in fertility, which, along with decreasing mortality, will lead to population aging.