River, rice and city: The transformation of Plovdiv in The Early Modern Ottoman Period

This study examines the relationship between the Maritsa River and the city of Plovdiv during the early modern period (from the 14th century to the end of the 16th century). No prior environmental history study has been conducted on the relationship between the Maritsa River and Plovdiv. Therefore, this work discusses how the Maritsa River in the early modern Ottoman era can be addressed within the context of environmental historiography. This thesis consists of three main sections. The first chapter of the thesis discusses the geographical location and characteristics of the Maritsa River and the city of Plovdiv. The second section focuses on how the river and the city were managed through waqfs. The final chapter concentrates on the human element as the fundamental component of the relationship between the river and the city. In this context, Chapter I, first focuses on the geography of the Maritsa River and its status before the Ottoman conquest. With the beginning of the Ottoman conquests in the Balkans, it is observed that not only the river but also the river basin was used as a natural corridor of conquest. One of the most significant of these conquests is the conquest of Plovdiv. Following the city's conquest, rice cultivation, introduced by the Ottomans to the region, also began, utilizing the environmental resources provided by the river and the city. This chapter also addresses the natural elements of Plovdiv; the uses of forests, groves, summer pastures, and meadows under Ottoman administration are examined. In Chapter II, the management of the river and the city through waqfs, independent of the Ottoman administration following the conquest, is discussed. First, the question of how waqfs should be addressed within the discipline of environmental history is emphasized, and then some waqfs that were or were not directly established in Plovdiv are examined. Those that provided the city's drinking water, contributed to its economic development, and supported the region's environment were often waqfs, among the most important institutions. Through waqfs, dings and mills are discussed; it is revealed under what conditions and how institutions and people benefited from the river. The final point addressed within environmental history concerning waqfs is the hamams (public baths) and the use of environmental features as points of utilization. Chapter III focuses on the human element as the fundamental component of the relationship between the river and the city. Particular attention is given to the çeltükcis, working in rice fields. The areas where the çeltükcis lived around the river and the city, and how they used the river for production, are examined. Not only the çeltükcis are discussed; the study also investigates how the askerîs in the region utilized the river and the city to strengthen their own positions.