A eunuch in the Byzantine Empire: John the Orphanotrophos

Within the Byzantine palaces and institutions, eunuchs held many positions. As one of the court eunuchs, John of Paphlagonia played an active role in many events in the first quarter of the eleventh century. After the death of Constantine VIII, the right of succession passed to Empress Zoe and Theodora, as the Macedonian dynasty had no male heir. John served first Basil II and then Romanos III during this period. He organized a conspiracy against Romanos III. As a result of this conspiracy, his brother Michael IV married Zoe and ascended the throne. He assumed the administration of the Empire on behalf of his brother. He came to the forefront, especially with his radical decisions in financial administration. He changed the tax policies of the Empire and, especially converted the tax in-kind levied on Bulgarians into cash. He also sold the tax rights of the Empire. Throughout Michael IV's reign, he was the decision-maker in political and military affairs. John established a repressive regime during this period. In foreign relations, John' priority was Sicily. He closely followed the political developments in Sicily and organized a military expedition to the island in 1038. Apart from the developments in Sicily, he tried to ensure security on the borders. He made peace with nations and states with which the Empire was in conflict such as Pechenegs and Fatimid Caliphate. In 1040, Bulgarians rebelled under the leadership of Petar Delyan. John' financial practices caused this rebellion to grow. After the death of Michael IV, he succeeded in putting his nephew Michael V on the throne. As a result of the hostility of Michael V and Zoe against John, he was sent into exile. He died in 1043 on the island of Lesbos, shortly after being blinded. Keywords: Eunuch John, 11th Century, Michael IV, Orphanotrophos, Zoe.