Continuity and change of the 'Umar Covenant in al-Quds during the Ottoman period 1517-1831

Existing scholarship on Ottoman-Christian subject relations has primarily focused on two key areas: the financial benefits derived from taxes and the utility of rival Christian denominations in maintaining Ottoman sovereignty. These assumptions led to the notion that there was no long-term and stable policy in regulating Christian disputes, a notion that is obscured by the decline paradigm of the decentralization era. Primary sources in this thesis will challenge this assumption by examining the abundant mentions of the 'Umar Covenant (Ömer Ahidnamesi) in Ottoman documents. This thesis demonstrates that the Ottomans did not seek to dominate and monopolize the Eastern Churches, as it is argued in the prevailing revisionist scholarly discussion. The frequency with which the Covenant of Umar is referenced in the Mühimme (Imperial Edicts) and Ahkam (Imperial Orders) Registers in a variety of contexts - with the Holy Sepulchre being the most debated issue - literally demonstrates that the document was attributed to Caliph 'Umar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb and presented as a model for upholding the Ottoman policy of justice and balance of power in resolving disputes among Christian denominations. This thesis examines the extent of the authority embodied in the Covenant of 'Umar. The imperial edicts and orders, which included responses to petitions and complaints, illustrate the complex relationship between Orthodox Christians and the Ottoman Sultan and show their participation in the creation of Ottoman policy. A linguistic and historical analysis of these documents demonstrates the central authority of the 'Umar Covenant with a constant pattern. An examination of the Sultan's decrees allows the formulation of propositions regarding the continuity and change of the Umar Covenant. This thesis spans from 1517 to 1831, the first period of Ottoman regulation in al-Quds that marked the shifting turning point after 1831.