Investigation of fire risks and fire safety of dry cargo ships in marine transportation

Maritime transportation has historically been a cornerstone of global trade, playing a central role in shaping civilizations and enabling economic connections. Since the Industrial Revolution, the volume and significance of maritime transportation have steadily increased, and today approximately 90% of global trade volume is carried by sea. Among the various types of vessels serving this sector, bulk carriers occupy a critical position within the international logistics chain. These vessels are capable of transporting large quantities of diverse cargo types, offering efficient inter-port operations and relatively low operational costs. Bulk carriers primarily handle dry bulk commodities such as grain, coal, iron ore, fertilizers, bauxite, and phosphate. Compared to container shipping, bulk carriers require less handling equipment and energy, making them a more environmentally and economically sustainable alternative. Despite these advantages, bulk carriers face significant safety vulnerabilities. These vessels are exposed to considerable security threats, primarily the risk of fire. Fires on board ships are far more complex and hazardous than on land; if not controlled rapidly, they can lead to irreversible consequences. Beyond the loss of human life, fires can cause environmental disasters, total cargo loss, structural damage to the ship, and even sinking. Therefore, fire safety in bulk carrier shipping is a multifaceted issue that extends beyond technical concerns to encompass human safety, environmental protection, commercial security, and international regulatory compliance. Numerous risk factors contribute to the likelihood of fire on bulk carriers. The physical and chemical properties of the cargo play a direct role in determining this risk. For instance, coal, certain types of fertilizers, sulfur, and aluminum powder can spontaneously heat up under specific conditions, igniting upon exposure to oxygen, moisture, or friction. These cargoes become particularly dangerous when insufficient ventilation is provided during stowage or when temperature control is lacking. Moreover, improper cargo handling procedures, neglect of ship stability during loading, insufficient sealing of cargo holds, and deficiencies in loading protocols increase fire risk. Many older bulk carriers lack effective fire detection and suppression systems or rely on outdated technologies, making early fire detection and rapid response challenging. Human factors constitute another critical source of fire risk. Insufficient crew training in fire safety, infrequent drills, improper use of firefighting equipment, panic responses, and poor crisis management exacerbate fire incidents. Maintenance lapses, unchecked electrical systems, and inadequate hazardous cargo information further compound these risks. Fires predominantly originate in the engine room, electrical panels, galley, or cargo holds—areas where heat generation, flammable materials, and electrical equipment interact closely. Thus, fire risk management must integrate both technical and human dimensions. The enclosed and limited-access environment of a ship complicates firefighting efforts. Delays in fire detection and evacuation can lead to the release of toxic gases, electrical failures, loss of control, explosions, and instability of the vessel, amplifying the severity of the incident. Harsh sea conditions restrict firefighter mobility and limit emergency evacuation options, while the physical capacity of firefighting systems on board is constrained. Consequently, fire safety should not be considered merely an emergency response activity but as a comprehensive system encompassing fire prevention, real-time management, and post-incident recovery. International maritime authorities have established regulations to mitigate fire risks. The International Maritime Organization (IMO) sets fire safety standards through conventions such as SOLAS (Safety of Life at Sea), the ISM Code (International Safety Management Code), and the FSS Code (Fire Safety Systems Code), which ships must comply with and are periodically inspected against. However, many vessels meet these regulations only on paper, with significant implementation gaps observed during inspections and operations. This underscores the importance of fostering a genuine safety culture within shipping companies. The adequacy of technical systems must be complemented by crew competence, procedural adherence, disciplined maintenance, and an overarching organizational safety mindset. Accordingly, fire safety requires proactive risk assessments, performance-driven analysis, and data-supported decision-making rather than mere reactive responses based on past accidents. In this study, the Fine-Kinney risk assessment method was employed to systematically analyze fire hazards. This method evaluates risk magnitude by considering three key parameters: probability of occurrence (P), frequency of exposure (F), and severity of consequences (S). By calculating the product of these parameters, a quantitative risk score is generated for each hazard, facilitating prioritization and targeted mitigation. The Fine-Kinney method, widely applied across industries, enables objective evaluation of fire risks on vessels based on quantifiable data. Analyses conducted within this study identified cargo holds, electrical systems, and ventilation ducts as the highest-risk areas for fire on bulk carriers, with critical levels of both likelihood and severity. Moreover, human factor-related risks—such as insufficient training, procedural lapses, and incorrect firefighting—were found to be as perilous as technical deficiencies. A literature review revealed that most maritime fire safety research concentrates on tankers and passenger ships, with comparatively little attention paid to the unique fire safety challenges of bulk carriers. However, due to the inherently combustible, dust-forming, or self-heating characteristics of many dry bulk cargoes, bulk carriers are equally vulnerable to fire incidents. Therefore, this study examined not only academic publications but also international marine casualty databases, flag state safety reports, classification society guidelines, and operational procedures from shipping companies. The collected data indicated that fires commonly escalated due to maintenance deficiencies, untrained personnel, outdated and nonfunctional equipment, and improper emergency response. Accordingly, the study proposes several key recommendations for improving fire safety on bulk carriers. Primarily, existing fire detection and suppression systems must be technologically upgraded. Ships should be equipped with heat-sensitive sensors, early warning systems, automated gas-based extinguishing, and integrated smoke detectors. Secondly, crew training programs require modernization to include scenario-based, practical drills that strengthen emergency response skills. Thirdly, transport of self-heating cargoes should be subject to standardized pre-shipment analyses and strict monitoring of humidity and temperature conditions. Finally, fire safety must be institutionalized as a shared responsibility among all crew members rather than being limited to captains or officers. Emphasizing "anticipation" alongside "prevention," decision-making must be data-driven and integrated into operational routines. In conclusion, this study advocates for a holistic approach to evaluating fire risks specific to bulk carrier shipping, encompassing technical, human, and managerial dimensions. Risk analyses based on the Fine-Kinney method not only provide a snapshot of current vulnerabilities but also guide strategic planning for ship operators, engineers, policymakers, and trainers. Fire safety is an indispensable element of maritime industry sustainability, environmental stewardship, and human life protection. This research aims to contribute scientifically to building a safer maritime future by raising awareness, equipping stakeholders with knowledge, and enhancing operational practices.