The historical evolution of the concept of "Biat" and its reflections in Türkiye

This thesis examines the concept of biat, which emerged within Islamic political thought to express the relationship between social allegiance, the legitimacy of leadership, and political authority, by considering its transformations over time within the Anatolian context. Extending the analysis up to the Republic of Türkiye, the study aims to analyze how the concept of biat has been influenced, reshaped, and assigned different meanings in religious, political, and social contexts according to the unique conditions of each historical period. The first chapter explores the semantic field of biat and its conceptual relationship with notions such as subjecthood, obedience, allegiance, and the acceptance of sovereignty. It also discusses the historical development of biat culture, as well as oppositional concepts and critiques particularly those emerging from populist and anti-authoritarian perspectives. Subsequently, the study delves into the foundations of biat in Islamic political tradition. During the time of the Prophet Muhammad, biat emerged as a mutual contract of consent and obedience between the leader and the community. This understanding continued in the era of the Four Rightly Guided Caliphs, where it served as a mechanism for governance based on public consent. In the Umayyad and Abbasid periods, however, biat evolved into a tool that consolidated dynastic authority. In early Turkic-Islamic states, biat was more symbolic and limited to the recognition of the caliph's or sultan's legitimacy. Under the Seljuks, it functioned more as a traditional instrument of internal dynastic loyalty. The Ottoman Empire is analyzed in terms of both its classical and modern periods. In the classical era, biat ceremonies conducted during the accession of sultans served as significant markers of political legitimacy. In the modern period, with the influence of Tanzimat reforms and modernization, biat was transformed into a more symbolic act of loyalty. During the reign of Abdulhamid II, biat incorporated both traditional and modern elements, marking a pivotal moment in its evolution. The final section focuses on how biat was reinterpreted in the Republican era of Türkiye. Between 1923 and 1960, it was recontextualized within a secular framework as allegiance to constitutional order. Between 1960 and 1980, the rise of political pluralism led to a more ideological and partisan understanding of loyalty. After 1980, the increasing personalization of politics strengthened the leader-centered dimension of biat, which became even more prominent following the transition to the Presidential System in 2017. In conclusion, this thesis demonstrates how the concept of biat has adapted to the political and social dynamics of each era. Originally emerging as a pact of loyalty in early Islam, biat was institutionalized in the Ottoman Empire and reinterpreted in modern Türkiye as a component of contemporary political structures. The study reveals that biat is not merely a form of obedience but also a tool for constructing political legitimacy. It aims to provide a comprehensive framework for understanding how biat has shaped, and continues to shape, the interplay between leadership, authority, and societal bonds. Keywords: Allegiance, Türkiye, Ottoman Empire, Umayyad State, Abbasid State