Construction of Ottoman Vîlāyet-i Rûm (patrons-vaqfs-actors of architecture): Yorguc Pasha family's patronage (1429-1494)

The thesis focuses on the architectural patronage of Murad II's powerful vizier Yörgüç Pasha and his family around Amasya region where called as Vilayet-i Rûm in the Ottoman era. As the ruler elite of the region, family members' tendency to commission monuments is an important case to examine the provincial Ottoman architecture in the 15th century. This research aims to determine the motivation of the family members to commission several types of monuments through the social and economic circumtences of the 15th century [particularly from 1429 to 1498], and to reveal the possible architectural actors who would have worked for the family. The first known member of the family was Yörgüç Pasha whose father's name recorded as 'Abdullah' on the inscriptions on his monuments and the sarcophaguses that belong to him and his children in his tomb. In the Ottoman devşirme [recruit] system names starting with Arabic prefix "abd-" [slave/creature] that refers to a non-muslim descent, were used instead of the real fathers' name of converted Christian children. Abdullah [means the slave/creature of God], was the most popular among these names. This suggests that he was a convert [mühtedi/devşirme]. In deed, Byzantine author Doukas [as an eyewitness] records Yörgüç Pasha's name as 'Iorgios Begus'; Γεωϱγίτζπεγιν. It is understood that, the origin of his extraordinary name, 'Yörgüç', that does not have a meaning in Turkish, Arabic or Persian, would be the Greek name 'Iorgios'. Being a convert, he established strong connections with the regional Turkish elite. His wife Şahbula Hatun, was the grand-daughter of post-Ilkhanid governer of Amasya, Şadgeldi Pasha, and sister of Yeni Hatun, wife of Sultan Murad II. Yörgüç Pasha ruled Amasya region from 1421 until his death in 1442. With his role during the crises between Ottomans and Karamanoglus, Karakoyunlus, Mamluks, Timurids and local Turkmen tribes, he became an influential politic figure throughtout the reign of Murad II. After his death, his brother Hızır Pasha [d. 1465] and his son Mehmed Pasha [d. 1498] ruled the region and tutored the Ottoman Princes throughtout the reign of Mehmed II and Bayezid II. According to the vaqfiya records, inscriptions of the existing monuments and several historical written sources, during the rule of the family in 15th century, Yörgüç Pasha, his wife Şahbula Hatun, his son Mustafa Bey, grand-daughter Hadice Hatun, Hızır Pasha and Mehmed Pasha commissioned more than a hunderd monuments in Amasya, Tokat, Samsun, Havza, Niksar, Tosya, İskilip, Sonisa/Uluköy, Ladik, Kavak, Vezirköprü, İshakalanı, İznik and Akhisar/Pamukova [44 in Amasya; 41 in Tokat; 6 in Samsun; 6 in Havza; 2 in Gümüş; 2 in Vezirköprü; 2 in Niksar; 1 in Kavak; 1 in Ladik; 1 in İskilip; 1 in Akhisar/Pamukova, 1 in İznik]. Yörgüç Pasha commissioned a complex including a imaret [a multi-functional building for worship and accommaodation], a soup-kitchen, a madrasa, a tomb, a han, seventeen shops and a hammam in Amasya; a han, a hammam, a fountain and a mektep [elementary school] in Tokat; a hammam in İskilip; a mosque and a hammam in Gümüş; a mosque in Havza; a mosque in Kavak; a mosque in Akhisar/Pamukova; a mosque and a mektep in Vezirköprü and a tekke [dervish lodge] in village of İshakalanı near Vezirköprü. Additionally, according to the sources there had been a palace and a water wheel associated with Yörgüç Pasha in Amasya. Şahbula Hatun commissioned a masjid, a mektep and a fountain in Amasya; Mustafa Bey commissioned a hammam in Amasya and a complex consist of an imaret, a soup kitchen, a han and a hammam in Havza. There added a tomb near the Mustafa Bey Imaret afterwards [probably by a descendant of Mustafa Bey]. Hızır Pasha commissioned a complex including an imaret, a madrasa, a mektep, a library, a fountain and a hammam; a han and a tekke in Amasya; a mosque and a tekke in Samsun, a madrasa in Sonisa/Uluköy; a mill in Ladik. Mehmed Pasha commissioned a complex in Amasya consisting of a mosque, four tabhanes, a tomb, a madrasa and soup-kitchen; a tekke and four mills; two hammams in Niksar; a bedesten in Tosya; a hammam, a han and two mills in Samsun; a hammam, four mills and thirty three shops in Tokat. Hadice Hatun, daughter of Yunus Bey son of Yörgüç Pasha built a masjid in İznik. A great majorty of these monuments could not reach the present day; some of them had lost their architectural originality and some are new-dated [mostly dated to 19th and early 20th century] monuments bearing the name of the first patron. Among all the monuments, only the Yörgüç Pasha Imaret [1430], Mustafa Bey Hammam [1436], Mehmed Pasha Mosque and Tabhanes [1486], Hızır Pasha Tomb and Hızır Pasha Hammam in Amasya; Mustafa Bey Imaret in Havza and Yörgüç Pasha Hammam could keep their originality. Hızır Pasha Imaret in Amasya and Yörgüç [Rüstem] Pasha Mosque in Gümüş are the monuments that have changed in time. The mosques called with the name of Yörgüç Pasha in Havza, Kavak and Vezirköprü are all new-dated buildings. Monuments are categorized by their functions and compared with the contemporaneous buildings. 4 imarets, 4 kitchens, 4 madrasas, 4 mekteps, 4 fountains, 3 tombs, 4 tekkes are discussed as 'the charity foundations'. The organizations, incomes and expenditures of these foundations that had been served free of charge, were clearly specified by the vaqfiyas [endowment documents] formed by family members. The sources of income of these foundations were revenue-generating buildings commissioned by the family members as 11 hammams, 5 hans, 1 bedesten, 50 shops, 11 mills and 1 water-wheel and the tax percentages of several villages around Amasya region that the family members had prilivege on. In conclusion, Yörgüç Pasha Family, had represented the Ottoman political power in Vilâyet-î Rûm throughout the 15th century, contributed to the 'Ottomanization' of the region in context of architecture with their tendency of patronage. Monumental characteristic of the structures commissioned by them presents both Ottoman and family's political and financial power. Family members endowed the tax percentages of more than two hunderds of villages that they had the rights of initiative. Although, the endowment of the provisional rights on the villages by Ottoman elites was a traditional practice in the Ottoman waqf system, one of the motivations of patronage had been making this revenue permanent for descendants. Because, the names of many villages endowed by the family members' had changed, it is impossible to reveal and most of them. However, with the help of the records in vaqfiyas and cadastral surveys [tahrir defterleri], it is understood that, the villages spread around the Vilâyet-î Rûm and presents a correlation with the towns [except İznik ve Akhisar/Pamukova that are in the Hüdavendigar region] in which family members' commissioned several monuments. These villages and towns, spread around Amasya, Tokat, Samsun, Ordu and Çorum, indicate the potential politic hinterland [impact area] of the Yörgüç Pasha family. On the other hand, consideration of the monuments, commissioned by the family members from 1429 to1486, do not display an architectural coherence. In other words, it is not necessary and possible to identify a 'Yörgüç Pasha Family Architecture' with its own tradition. Being one of the most productive regional patrons of the 15th century architecture, Yörgüç Pasha family imported the Ottoman metropolitan architecture formed around Bursa-Edirne-İstanbul in Amasya region there had been still represented the Anatolian Seljuk architectural tradition. There are not any records or inscriptions on the architects, masons or artists took part during the building processes of the monuments commissioned by the Yörgüç Pasha family. Accordingly, with the help of architectural analogy and the inferences extracted from several written sources, possible architectural actors could be suggested. It can be discussed three different era of the architectural production. The first era was in between 1429 and 1436. Monuments commissioned by Yörgüç Pasha, Mustafa Bey and Şahbula Hatun during this period should had been built by the same group of architects. The resemblance between the existing monuments commissioned by Yörgüç Pasha and Mustafa Bey and the buildings of Abu Bekr of Damascus, Ahmad, his son, and the architects accompanied them who worked around Amasya region at the same period draws attention. It could not be possible to suggest any architects for the period that Hızır Pasha had been active. Yakup Şah and his team who probably built the Amasya Bayezid II Complex and Tokat Hatuniye Complex at the same years with the Mehmed Pasha's patronage can be associated with the monuments commissioned by him.