Early and Middle Iron Age Hakkari region in the context of archaeological and written data

The mountainous region of Hakkari, which forms the subject of this study, lies on the northern extension of the Zagros mountain range. Today, this region roughly encompasses Hakkari Province, the southern part of Van Province, and the eastern areas of the Şırnak-Siirt-Bitlis line. Characterized by rugged mountains and deep valleys, the area maintains much of its mystery in the field of Ancient Near Eastern archaeology due to its unique geographic and cultural features. Despite this, the earliest traces of human presence in the region are, for now, primarily represented by Neolithic-period rock engravings found abundantly on high plateaus, depicting hunting scenes. Archaeological evidence from the Zagros region enables us to trace the transformation of local human communities from hunter-gatherers to nomadic herders and eventually to sedentary societies beginning in the prehistoric periods. Within this process, it becomes evident that the Hakkari Mountainous Region possessed a rich texture of fortresses, graves, and necropolises during the Early Iron Age (EIA). This thesis examines EIA and Middle Iron Age (MIA) fortresses, mounds, dirhes (a local type of structure), stelae, and tombs located in the region. Alongside previously identified remains, new discoveries have also been documented. According to our surface surveys, ten EIA fortresses of varying sizes were identified, nearly all of which are situated on the slopes of deep valleys—features that define the region's topography. These fortresses possess walls built with roughly cut stones and are strategically located overlooking the valleys. Architecturally, fortified sites such as Kunin and Bere Kele, dated to the MIA and featuring bastions, along with nearby rock-cut tombs, suggest the influence of the Urartian Kingdom. In addition to the fortresses, numerous dirhe structures—unique to the region and mostly concentrated along the Şırnak-Hakkari axis—appear to function as watchtowers lined along the ridges of valleys. Furthermore, this study identifies seven mound settlements, mostly near the Gever Plain, that contribute to constructing the chronological stratigraphy of the EIA and MIA periods in the region. The lack of systematic archaeological excavations at any of the fortresses, dirhes, or mounds imposes certain limitations on our findings. Nevertheless, this research concludes that these structures likely belonged to semi-nomadic tribal communities akin to the Nairi tribes mentioned in Middle and Neo-Assyrian inscriptions, who inhabited the vast geography stretching from the Taurus to the Zagros Mountains. Inscriptions from Mesopotamia dating to the early 2nd millennium BCE refer to the Zagros tribes as the Lullubi and Guti. Similarly, in the 1st millennium BCE, local clans in the Hakkari region appear to have formed alliances under proto-city-states such as Ukku (possibly the Hakkari center) and Kumme (possibly Beytüşşebap). Accordingly, large-scale constructions such as fortresses and dirhes—which required significant communal labor—must have been undertaken by clans loyal to these local powers mentioned in Assyrian written sources. These clans or tribes led a semi-pastoral life in the region's fragmented and mountainous terrain, each occupying defined territories with known winter quarters (fortresses and mounds) and summer pastures. The new socio-economic model based on herding domesticated animals, which emerged alongside traditional hunting and gathering in the Zagros from the Neolithic onwards, appears to be an adaptive lifestyle dictated by the region's geography—and one that has endured to the present day. Within this model, some clans likely rose to local power by exerting authority over others. Among the fortress sites studied, Begire Fortress—overlooking the Levin Valley—stands out with its large public architecture and features characteristic of a local center. Similarly, Mir Fortress, with its hunter-warrior stelae and rich graves located at its base, appears to have served as a center of local chieftainship. The ceramic finds from these graves (M1-M2), including Habur and Van-Urmiye Painted Wares and examples of plain simple ware, provide evidence of cultural connections between the Hakkari region and Syria-Mesopotamia as early as the 2nd millennium BCE. Additionally, some monochrome ceramics and groovy ware types, identified as part of the so-called "Northern Zagros Culture," are considered to be local productions specific to the Hakkari Mountainous Region. Besides field observations, ceramic materials transferred to the Van Museum reflect exceptional diversity in both form and manufacturing techniques. Among these are pedestal bowls in brown and reddish hues, single-handled thin-walled cups, and sharply contoured long-necked bowls—highly distinctive vessels that display Early Iron Age characteristics and are known to originate from EIA tombs in the Hakkari region. All the EIA tombs identified in the region are underground chamber tombs constructed with masonry and sealed with capstones. Similar to their contemporaries in the Van-Urmiye region, these tombs were designed for multiple burials. However, architectural elements such as niches or dromoi do not exhibit uniformity. In the MIA, rock-cut tombs like those found at Kunin and Bere Kele—especially in the northern part of the region under Urartian influence—are believed to have belonged to local rulers. In summary, although we do not yet know in full detail which power(s) were responsible for the EIA and MIA settlements, graves, and material culture studied in this thesis, future archaeological excavations and investigations will likely provide answers to many still-unresolved questions. Finally, although no definitive evidence has yet been found indicating the presence of royal centers with writing systems, seals, or temple structures akin to those in Urartu or Assyria, the discovery of surprising finds such as the stelae at Mir Fortress offers promising insight into the potential for future discoveries to illuminate the EIA and MIA history of the Hakkari Region.