The protection of civilians in Northwest Syria how is the responsibility to protect reflected in the knowledge, attitudes and behaviours of non-state armed groups?

Over 11 years since the onset of the conflict in Syria has seen more than 350,000 people killed, 5.7 million people seeking sanctuary in countries of asylum and a further 6.7 million people are displaced within the country itself (Nations, United Nations, 2021). The country has seen economic collapse, the rule of law has all but evaporated and the country is arguably more fragmented than ever before. While the Damascus regime, under the government of Bashar Al Assad, has recaptured much of the country that sought its overthrow, pockets of resistance remain. Most notable amongst these are the groups in northwest Syria including Hayat Tahrir A-Sham (HTS) and the Syrian National Army (SNA) supported by Turkish military operations in the north of the country, who continue to vie for control over remaining non-Government of Syria territory, thwarting attempts at recapture by the Russian military and Russian-supported Syrian troops. This is in addition to the US presence in northeast Syria supporting the Kurdish forces of the People's Protection Units (Yekîneyên Parastina Gel, or YPG)- Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF) control over parts of Al-Hasakeh, Deir Ezzor, Ar-Raqqah and Aleppo governorates. The deleterious impact of conflict-related violence on the civilian population has dropped off the international radar, particularly since recent emergent humanitarian crises, such as that in Ukraine and Afghanistan, take precedence over the protracted conflict in Syria. Yet violations continue. The Syrian Network for Human Rights report that in the first quarter of 2022, 297 civilians were killed as a direct result of the conflict, and there were 18 instances of direct targeting of civilian infrastructure, including schools and hospitals, during this time. Deprivation of liberty, destruction of family linkages, disappearances, targeted violations against people with specific needs, the widespread availability of arms and the collapse of state and de facto state structures all contribute to a dire situation for protection persons; not due to lack of legal frameworks but more so lack of compliance. Protection of civilians (PoC) in theory and in practice has been a failure in northwest Syria. The motivations of armed groups and humanitarian actors in the upholding of international humanitarian law (IHL) is examined through a comparative literature review and systematic analysis of secondary resources, which then informed a series of in-depth interviews with five non state armed groups and five humanitarian agencies operational in the area. In parallel - and given the context in which these groups are operating - investigation was made regarding the relevance of IHL and Islamic law and adherence thereto vis a vis the protection of civilians. Findings suggest that a thorough re-examination of the role of humanitarians in the promotion of protection of civilians is badly needed to all parties to the conflict, including but not limited to non-state armed groups active in northwest Syria.