The Russian invasion of Trans-Caspian Turkmen territories

The expansion policies of the Russians in the Caucasus and Trans-Caspian Turkestan have several historical turning points. The first of these occurred after Russia gained independence from the Golden Horde during the reign of Ivan III (1440–1505), when the Grand Duchy of Moscow consolidated its unity. His successor, Ivan IV (1530–1584), with the aim of establishing the Russian Tsardom, set out to assert influence over the khanates that emerged on the former territories of the Golden Horde. The conquest of Kazan and Astrakhan marked the beginning of Russian expansion in the Caucasus, which under Tsar Peter I and Catherine II became a systematic imperial policy. With treaties such as the Treaty of Gulistan (October 12, 1813) and the Treaty of Turkmenchay (February 10, 1828), this process continued in the direction of expansion. Russia's influence in the Caucasus became clearer through the occupation of Georgia and its policies toward Azerbaijan. Between 1828 and 1878, Russia's expansionist policy shifted toward Turkestan. The conquest of the Turkestan Khanates was not merely about seizing new lands but also carried significant economic, military, and strategic dimensions. The occupations of the Khanates of Kokand, Bukhara, and Khiva, the Turkmen resistance, and Russia's commercial activities in the region are crucial for understanding these features. Moreover, the rivalry among the great powers (Britain, Russia, and Iran) during this period played a central role in the ongoing struggles in Turkestan, also holding great importance within the framework of the "Great Game." The conquest of Turkmen lands by Russia between 1878 and 1881 through the First and Second Battles of Goktepe, the resistance and eventual collapse of the Turkmen people, and the fall of Merv completed the occupation and consolidated Russia's dominance in Turkestan. In the course of Russia's historical expansion, deep and lasting impacts were left on the political, economic, and cultural life of the local and regional communities. Keywords: Russia, Caucasus, Turkestan, Turkmen, Great Game, Goktepe