Shiism in Iran from the 7th to the 16th century

The primary motivation of this dissertation is the notable absence in the scholarly literature of a comprehensive and in-depth study on the historical trajectory of Shi'ism in the Iranian region during the pre-Safavid era. The emergence and development of Shi'ism in Iran, from the initial acceptance of Islam to its formalization under the Safavid dynasty, constitutes a multi-layered phenomenon that must be addressed not only from a theological perspective but also in relation to political structures. Accordingly, this study aims to illuminate the intellectual and doctrinal evolution of Shi'ism while simultaneously analyzing its interactions with political authorities, thereby offering a holistic framework for understanding sectarian transformations in medieval Iran. While the Kara Koyunlu and Ak Koyunlu periods have generally been studied separately in existing literature, this dissertation undertakes the first comparative analysis of these two major Turkoman dynasties. It demonstrates their respective roles in the dissemination and consolidation of Shi'ism, thereby clarifying the political-religious landscape that paved the way for Safavid hegemony. This approach not only fills a gap in the current historiography but also provides a theoretical and methodological basis for future research. Initially emerging as a political opposition movement, Shi'ism gradually evolved into an independent religious sect with distinct theological principles and an organized structure. Its spread across Iranian territories began with the early Islamic conquests under the Caliph 'Umar and intensified during the Umayyad period through various rebellions. In the Abbasid era, Shi'i movements began to institutionalize, giving rise to local Shi'i dynasties, particularly in regions such as Tabaristan, Gilan, Qum, and Rayy, which became key centers of Shi'i intellectual life. Subsequent developments, particularly the Mongol invasions and the Ilkhanid period, accelerated the transformation of Shi'ism, fostering the rise of heterodox movements such as the Sarbadārīs in Khorasan. During the late 14th and early 15th centuries, the socio-political influence of Shi'ism expanded further under the Kara Koyunlu and Ak Koyunlu dynasties. Their varying policies and engagements with Sufi and Shi'i circles laid important groundwork for the Safavid institutionalization of Shi'ism. While debates persist over the Kara Koyunlu's sectarian identity, historical records indicate the concurrent use of both Sunni and Shi'i symbols, suggesting that sectarian affiliation was still fluid and shaped largely by political pragmatism. The Ak Koyunlu, especially under Uzun Hasan, maintained relationships with Sunni scholars while also engaging with Shi'i elements. Both dynasties maintained close ties with mystical movements, facilitating Shi'ism's acceptance among the broader populace. One of the central findings of this study is that, in the pre-Safavid period, Shi'ism functioned not only as a religious doctrine but also as a form of political resistance and identity formation. The Kara Koyunlu and Ak Koyunlu eras represent a transitional phase in the institutionalization of Shi'ism in Iran. Understanding these phases is crucial for interpreting the official adoption of Shi'ism under the Safavids. This dissertation contributes original insights to both Islamic and sectarian historiography by shedding light on the historical transformation of Shi'ism in the Iranian context.