The effects of augmented reality and virtual reality applications in education on student achievement, motivation, and engagement: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Augmented reality (AR) and virtual reality (VR) have increasingly been adopted as immersive and interactive tools in educational settings. Within this context, academic achievement, motivation, and engagement are widely recognized as core outcome variables that collectively shape learning processes. These constructs are interrelated, with increased motivation typically supporting greater engagement, which in turn contributes to improved academic performance. Although research examining the educational impacts of AR and VR has grown substantially, the generalizability of findings remains limited. Existing studies differ notably in terms of geographical location, levels of national development, academic discipline, sample characteristics, research designs, and contextual conditions, which complicate cross-study comparisons. Furthermore, previous meta-analyses often rely on a restricted number of studies or narrow time frames (e.g., the most recent five years). A considerable body of Turkish-language theses—representing a substantial segment of AR and VR research—has been largely excluded from prior syntheses, thereby limiting the comprehensiveness of earlier reviews. Including these studies is essential to obtain a more complete and globally representative understanding of the field. In addition, recent technological advancements have introduced new AR and VR hardware and software modalities that may differentially influence students' achievement, motivation, and engagement. Consequently, there is a need for meta-analytic investigations that integrate studies across extended periods, incorporate contemporary AR and VR interventions, and examine multidimensional psychosocial outcomes. The present study aimed to systematically review and meta-analyze the effects of AR and VR interventions on students' academic achievement, motivation, and engagement. Experimental and quasi-experimental studies assessing these outcomes were included. The systematic search covered publications up to May 2024 across databases including ScienceDirect, SCOPUS, Web of Science, TR-Dizin, ProQuest, EBSCO (ERIC and TR-Dizin), and the National Thesis Center (YÖKTEZ). Keywords related to "achievement," "motivation," and "engagement" (and their English equivalents) were used in multiple combinations. A total of 331 AR and 202 VR studies (2014–2024) were identified for the systematic review. For the meta-analysis, 296 achievement, 124 motivation, and 17 engagement effect sizes were included for AR, and 170 achievement, 74 motivation, and 33 engagement effect sizes for VR. All studies were independently coded by two trained researchers to ensure inter-coder reliability. Analyses were performed using Comprehensive Meta-Analysis (CMA) under a random-effects model. Mean effect sizes were calculated using Cohen's d and reported with 95% confidence intervals. Publication bias was assessed using funnel plots, Rosenthal's fail-safe N, and Duval and Tweedie's trim-and-fill method, with results indicating no evidence of statistically significant bias. The meta-analytic findings showed that AR interventions were associated with large effects on academic achievement (d = 0.88, 95% CI [0.79, 0.96]), motivation (d = 0.86, 95% CI [0.72, 1.00]), and engagement (d = 0.94, 95% CI [0.54, 1.35]). VR interventions demonstrated large effects on academic achievement (d = 0.89, 95% CI [0.78, 0.99]) and engagement (d = 0.98, 95% CI [0.69, 1.27]), and a moderate effect on motivation (d = 0.73, 95% CI [0.60, 0.87]). To examine potential sources of heterogeneity, moderator analyses were conducted. The results indicated that the effects of AR and VR applications on academic achievement, motivation, and engagement varied across several research variables. For AR applications, discipline, country-level innovation capacity, and educational level showed statistically significant moderating effects on academic achievement. Country-level innovation capacity showed a statistically significant moderating effect on motivation. Educational level, publication year, and intervention duration showed statistically significant moderating effects on engagement. For VR applications, discipline, country-level innovation capacity, and intervention duration showed statistically significant moderating effects on academic achievement. Discipline and type of intervention showed statistically significant moderating effects on motivation. Educational level and intervention duration showed statistically significant moderating effects on engagement. Across the remaining research variables, no statistically significant moderating effects were observed (p > .05). Overall, the findings suggest that AR and VR applications are associated with substantial positive effects on students' academic achievement, motivation, and engagement. Based on these results, the study provides several recommendations for practitioners, researchers, and policymakers to support the effective, systematic, and sustainable integration of these technologies into educational settings.