Change of food and drink habits in istanbul within thecultural axis of the republic period on cuisine andplaces (1923-1960)

ABSTRACT The culinary culture of Istanbul is essentially an extension of the Turkish culinary tradition, which has undergone transformation and development through various historical periods, from Central Asia to Anatolia. Undoubtedly, the most significant factor contributing to these changes and their transmission to Anatolia has been migration. As a nomadic community, the Turks have left their mark in many domains throughout history, including the realm of food and culinary culture. Beginning with the tent and culminating in an empire that spanned three continents, the Ottomans played an influential role in world history. It is an undeniable fact that, following the conquest of Istanbul, they left lasting cultural imprints in the field of gastronomy, laying the foundational elements of the culinary traditions that would later shape the Republican era. During the Ottoman period, Istanbul's status as the capital and one of the empire's most significant commercial centres allowed it to benefit from a wide range of food resources and facilitated access to a rich variety of ingredients. One of the key elements contributing to the richness of Istanbul's cuisine 10 was the privileged status of the imperial palace kitchen. Structurally, the Ottoman Empire encompassed numerous ethnic groups, nations, and civilizations, which fostered a high degree of culinary diversity. Drawing on a culinary tradition that stretched from Central Asia to Anatolia, the Ottoman Empire continuously enriched its cuisine over the centuries. This process, grounded in continuity, gave rise to a multicultural and cosmopolitan culinary structure that deeply influenced the development of Istanbul's cuisine. Following the proclamation of the Republic, modern Istanbul cuisine evolved by preserving the legacy of the Ottoman culinary tradition and consistently building upon its foundations. Shaped by a mindset that resisted assimilation while remaining open to innovation, Istanbul's cuisine has undergone significant transformations, reflecting both continuity and change through different historical phases. This new era, built upon the rich legacy of Ottoman cuisine, established a unique spectrum of flavors in Istanbul by striking a balance between the modern and the traditional. The social and cultural transformations that accompanied the foundation of the Republic significantly influenced Istanbul's gastronomic identity in multiple dimensions. In the final period of Ottoman Istanbul where social venues were largely limited to soup kitchens, modest eateries, coffeehouses, and taverns, all lacking modern seating arrangements and far removed from contemporary notions of social space the Tanzimat and Islahat Edicts granted significant privileges and expanded rights to non-Muslim communities. These reforms marked the onset of foreign influence in Istanbul's social life. During the Crimean War, the receipt of aid from European powers and the settlement of European soldiers along with their families in Istanbul led to what was perceived as a foreign influx. Consequently, the city came under the strong cultural influence of the Levantine community. This era introduced new dynamics to the culinary scene, such as the coexistence of alaturka (traditional) and alafranga (Western) styles. As a result of this cultural shift, the traditional stool-based venues gradually gave way to establishments featuring European-style tables and chairs, granting Istanbul a renewed identity in terms of its food culture, entertainment, and social venues. Furthermore, the Russian Revolution of 1917 triggered a wave of migration, bringing a new population from Russia that would further shape the city's social and cultural fabric. Among the immigrants known as the "White Russians," who fled to 11 various parts of the world, a significant number estimated to be in the hundreds of thousands—chose to settle in Istanbul. With this wave of White Russian migration, Istanbul's culinary scene reached a new peak in diversity and sophistication, not only in terms of menu offerings but also in the variety of dining establishments, as the Russians brought with them considerable expertise in the service industry. Particularly beyond restaurants and patisseries, Istanbul was introduced to new forms of entertainment, gambling, and nightlife, which further expanded its culinary and social landscape. Following the proclamation of the Republic in 1923, the modernizing spirit of the new regime began to manifest itself across all spheres of life, including culinary practices and the design of social spaces. This period marked a turning point, with significant momentum gained in the development of the culinary arts, leading to sustained and continuous growth in food culture. Notably, the publication of comprehensive cookbooks and the establishment of culinary schools and institutes introduced new recipes and cooking techniques, contributing to a deeper and more systematic understanding of gastronomy. With the advent of the Republican era, Beyoğlu increasingly replaced Galata as the city's most prominent cultural and social hub. During this time, under the continued influence of both Russian and Levantine culinary traditions, numerous new venues opened across Istanbul, further enriching its gastronomic identity. In this context, a variety of new venues emerged, including hotels with in-house restaurants, spacious dining halls where large groups could dine accompanied by music, as well as opera houses, ballrooms, and casinos. Traditional taverns gradually gave way to licensed restaurants, bars, and beer halls, while coffeehouses with simple stool seating were replaced by modern establishments featuring table-and-chair arrangements, where men and women could now socialize together. These transformations laid the foundation for the types of venues and menu preferences that define the modern dining experience today. Alongside these developments, the global economic crisis of 1929 had a significant impact on the food economy, even during the early years of the Republic. Before the full effects of this crisis could be overcome, the outbreak of the Second World War further complicated access to food and negatively affected culinary practices. Although Turkey did not participate in the war militarily, it nonetheless experienced many of its hardships acutely. To mitigate 12 these difficulties, the government introduced several additional taxes. One such tax, the Wealth Tax (Varlık Vergisi), led to a decline in the influence of non-Muslim communities, who had previously played a dominant role in the food and hospitality sector. As a result, the food and beverage sector, largely dominated by non-Muslim communities, was adversely affected by the implementation of the Wealth Tax. In parallel, rising food prices prompted the government to impose restrictions and penalties on the production and sale of goods made with wheat flour intended for breadmaking—such as pastries, cakes, and sandwich breads in an effort to ensure sufficient bread supply. These regulations had a negative impact on the menu diversity of businesses such as patisseries and restaurants. Similarly, the introduction of bread rationing meant that the daily bread allowance was determined by the state, leading to a decrease in both the quantity and quality of food available per capita. On the other hand, this period witnessed an expansion in the number of areas receiving electricity. As electricity distribution gradually spread throughout the city, technological innovations in the kitchen did not lag behind; refrigerators and gas ovens began to appear in İstanbulites households. These developments ushered in new practices in both food preparation and storage. In the postwar period, culinary and gastronomic culture continued to evolve at an accelerating pace. Particularly during the era of the Republican People's Party (CHP), strengthened political and economic relations with the United States led to the indirect influence of American culture in Istanbul, notably through the rise of the "hippie" trend. American-style foods such as sandwiches and hamburgers began to appear on menus, and establishments resembling those seen in American films—offering bar services and fast food began to open in the city. However, the events of September 6/7, 1955, led to serious unrest in Beyoğlu and contributed to the gradual departure of certain minority communities who had played a significant role in Istanbul's food and beverage sector. This, in turn, partially diminished their cultural influence on the city's culinary landscape. During the rule of the Democrat Party, significant emphasis was placed on urban development, which led to improvements in transportation, education, and healthcare key aspects of social life in Istanbul. These developments reinforced the city's status as a major centre of attraction and, indirectly, triggered waves of migration from various regions. In particular, migration from Southern, 13 Southeastern, and Eastern Anatolia including cities such as Hatay, Gaziantep, Şanlıurfa, Diyarbakır, and Van introduced Istanbul to a range of regional culinary traditions. Dishes such as lahmacun, Adana kebab, içli köfte, and various local mezes became part of the city's gastronomic repertoire. In this context, local restaurants specializing in these regional flavors such as ocakbaşı (grill houses), liver eateries, kebab shops, and lahmacun vendors began to emerge, each becoming closely associated with the dishes they offered. Consequently, a new culinary synthesis was born in Istanbul, one particularly enriched by the cultural influences of the Eastern and Southeastern regions of Turkey. In addition, the return of the Black Sea people who had migrated to Russia and the experience they learned there in pastry, baking and pastry, and bringing the pleasure of pastry to Istanbul, has also been a source of richness for Istanbul cuisine. As a result of these migrations, Istanbul has become a central focus where different cultures and geographies come to life.