Foreign relations of the Golden Horde Empire

The Golden Horde Empire, which was governed by the Khans who are the descendants of Cuci, the oldest son of Chengis Khan, was established in 1241 by Chengis Khan's grandson Batu Khan in Eastern Europe along the Volga river, with Saray as its central city. As Berke Khan came to the throne and accepted Islam, these signified that the new empire would become an important source of power within the region. This is due to the fact that the Memluk Sultan Baybars who was also another powerful leader in the region and Berke adhered to the same religion and it was believed that they could ally against a common enemy. As a matter of fact after a conflict regarding Azerbaijan arose between Chengis Khan's grandson, Ilkhanid emperor Hulagu and Berke Khan and following the attack of the Abbasid caliphate to the Capital Baghdad in 1258; Hulagu claimed that the land of Azerbaijan belonged to him while Berke Khan argued that his khanate was also entitled to certain rights on these lands and declared that according to Chengis laws the occupied land should have been divided into five and two of these should be given to Great Khan, one should be left to the Batu Nation and the remaining two should be given to the Ilkhanid Khanate. Despite the fact that it was clear that Hulagu had occupied the region with the help of the military forces sent by Berke Khan. As a result Berke who had become Muslim at a young age, had made Islam the basis of his Near Eastern politics and this led Berke to attain friendly relations with the Mameluks of Egypt. The close relations between these two states was possible through mutual visits of ambassadors to the other state; and the V Mameluk Sultan Baybars had also appealed to Berke after Hulagu occupied Baghdad demanding that he declares a jihad against Hulagu. Ultimately the Golden Horde and Mameluk empires had formed a common front against the Mongols of Iran while the political equilibrium was changing in the Middle East. However, as the Byzantine Emperor Mikhail was feeling the pressure applied by Hulagu more intensely, he changed his politics towards this alliance. Actually previously the Emperor had accepted Baybars' ambassadors gladly and helped his attempts to repair and decorate the mosques in Istanbul, but in 1264 he arrested the ambassadors of the Sultan of Egypt who had gone to Berke Khan and seized their property while they were passing through Istanbul. In addition to this, emperor Laskaris did not want the empowerment of the Golden Horde and Mameluk states and was working towards the guardianship of the Hulagu state. As a result, emperor Laskaris was trying to hamper the mutual ambassadorial visits between these two states in order to prevent them from forming an alliance and working collectively. Furthermore, later on as the Golden Horde forces were marching against the Byzantine Empire within the Balkan peninsula, they were led by Berke's general commander Nogay. Following Berke's death (1266) Nogay's power increased even more during the era of Mengu Timur Khan. Mihail Paleolog's daughter Efrosinia married Nogay in order for Nogay to form an alliance with him. In 1271, during a war between the Bulgarian King Konstantin and Mihail, Nogay helped Mihail extensively. Ultimately, these relations that continued with such and similar contacts as well as the relations that started with the occupation of Istanbul once again by the Byzantine Emperor Mihail in 1261 back from the Latins, the Golden Horde State started following a different policy. Therefore, they formed certain mutual political, social and economic relations. Again another significant component of this study, the Cultural and Civilizational History is also important for comprehending the Golden Horde Empire's state and administrative bodies, economic and commercial life, the perception of religion and literature within the social life. Key Words: Golden Horde, Ilkhanid Khanate, Mameluk states, Byzantine.