From fortress to star fort: The development process of fortress architecture through sieges of nicosia and famagusta examples

The effectiveness of high and impenetrable walled castles of the European Middle Ages began to diminish when the firearms entered the siege warfare. In the beginning of XVI. Century, these high walls could no longer resist firepower of artillery. Thus, the advancements in gunpowder and firearm technologies during the XVI. century lead to the reconsideration of fortification systems. During this process, a corpus on the way which artillery resistant fortifications should be built emerged. The reconsideration of fortification systems developed around the names, such as Albrecht Dürer, Daniel Specklin and Matthias Dögen. This process started to alter the course of siege warfare during the mentioned period. Curtains of the fortresses expanded in a horizontal angle to meet the moat and the new type of bastions, which are implemented in order to allow the stationing of artillery on the fortifications. Moreover, the ditch not only served to slow the enemy but became an element that is essential for defence. Thus, if the ditch fell into the hands of enemy, the fall of fortress might have happened anytime soon. These new conditions that arose in the siege warfare required new defence measures. Almost all stages of this process can be observed in the fortified towns of Nicosia and Famagusta in Cyprus which was conquered by Ottomans in 1571.