School-aged children's experience and expression of shame and guilt: The role of age, gender, context, parenting and socioeconomic status

The current study tested the unique and interactive role of child age, sex, socioeconomic status (SES), interaction context (parent/peer) and family factors on school-aged children's experience and expression of shame and guilt. Their explanations for expressing or hiding these emotions were also explored. We recruited 144 middle-school children and their mothers for this study. Mothers completed a family demographics form and the mother form of parenting behaviors (EMBU) scale. Children participated in a semi-structured interview and completed the child form of EMBU. Analyses revealed that younger children reported higher shame experience. They also reported more shame expression towards their parents than their older counterparts. Age did not affect children's overall guilt experience and expression, but guilt expression increased with age in low SES. Additionally, girls reported a more intense guilt experience. The role of SES was detected for shame experience only such that children from low SES families reported more intense shame experience. Gender by SES interaction effect revealed that boys in low SES experience more intense shame and guilt compared to boys in high SES. The role of context revealed more shame expression and more intense guilt experience in the presence of their parents than their peers. Warmth was a significant parenting behavior in predicting shame and guilt experience and shame expression. Additionally, overprotection was found to be positively related to shame experience and expression. Avoiding embarrassment and maintaining self-esteem, avoiding punishment, and receiving interpersonal support were the most frequent reasons for hiding shame and guilt, and expressing both shame and guilt, respectively.