Incense and incense forms in Anatolia from the Neolithic Age to the Iron Age in the light of the ancient Near East

Believed to form an invisible link between humans and gods, incense has become a necessary cultic object used in religious rituals for unexplained natural occurrences, unwanted disasters or illnesses, protection from malevolent entities, the deification of the deceased's soul, and other similar purposes. Its pleasant aroma has also earned it a place in festivals, feasts, and wedding ceremonies. The fact that incense materials are difficult to obtain has made it a significant prestige item and a tradable commodity. For these reasons, records related to incense can be found even in the earliest written documents. Furthermore, it can be seen in visual sources such as seal impressions, wall paintings, wall reliefs, and metal door bands starting from the 3rd millennium BCE. Actual examples of the forms seen in these depictions—crafted from stone, ceramic, and metal—have served humanity for millennia. In this context, studies in Anatolia have found data related to incense, particularly in written and visual records from the 2nd millennium BCE; however, there are only a few studies on the topic of incense. For this reason, samples were taken from Boğazköy, Ortaköy, Oymaağaç Höyük, and Beycesultan Höyük for ORA analyses. Additionally, experimental studies were conducted in line with cuneiform texts to understand the effects of the incense materials used during the Bronze Age. In addition to all of this, ethnoarchaeological research, including face-to-face interviews conducted in different parts of Anatolia, has determined that the use of incense for protection against evil beings or the evil eye, as well as for funerary purposes and a pleasant scent, continues in a similar manner. All the research has shown that the tradition of incense has preserved its validity and underlying beliefs for thousands of years, despite some changes in its application methods and materials.