Sufism and sufi orders in Safavid Iran

Throughout history, Sufism and Sufi orders have served not only as structures that nourish spiritual life, but also as institutions playing a decisive role in shaping the religious, cultural, and political fabric of societies. In this regard, the Safavid period represents a significant historical turning point, demonstrating how Sufism evolved from a spiritual tradition into an effective instrument for sectarian construction and the establishment of political authority. Although many studies have been conducted on the Safavids in Turkey, the absence of a comprehensive doctoral-level study focusing specifically on Sufism and Sufi orders during this period has necessitated a renewed academic inquiry. This dissertation aims to address that gap and contribute meaningfully to the scholarly literature. Employing a qualitative document analysis method, the study examines chronicles, classical texts, and modern research within a chronological and thematic framework. The findings indicate that the Safaviyya order initially emerged under Shaykh Safi al-Din of Ardabil along a Sunni-Shafi'i line, but gradually shifted towards Shiism during the leadership of Shaykh Junayd and Shaykh Haydar, eventually transforming under Shah Ismail into a sect-establishing structure. The Safavid regime's adoption of Shiism as state ideology exerted pressure on Sunni circles and led to a division among mystical communities. While Shii-oriented orders survived through their proximity to the state, Sunni-rooted structures were either suppressed or migrated to Ottoman territories. This dissertation, therefore, offers an original contribution by analyzing the transformation of Sufism during the Safavid era, the evolving role of Sufi orders, and their involvement in the formation of sectarian identity.